A Brief History: How the Black Church Reformed American Christianity
(ANALYSIS) After centuries of slavery and racial persecution in U.S. history, a fascinating era emerged when the Bible was used to promote peace and equality rather than strife and subjugation.
Justifications for the abominable institution of slavery, laden with Old Testament passages on servitude and aspirations of evangelism, withered under the pressure of a far superior power: Christ’s demand for neighborly love. The Black Church served as a keystone in African Americans’ lives, holding together communities fragmented by a tumultuous past. However, by centering its ministry around Jesus’ “greatest Commandment,” the Black Church also reformed the broader nation, relentlessly championing the doctrine of Imago Dei.
The Bible of Slavery
For a long time, slavers used the Bible to justify their enslavement of Africans. Some historians even go as far as labeling 19th century Southern Christianity as a pro-slavery religion. Christian slavers’ twisted beliefs depended on gross misinterpretations of biblical texts and claims of altruistic evangelism. For example, two of their most commonly cited passages were Ephesians 6:5-7 (St. Paul on obedience) and Genesis 9:18-27 (the Curse of Canaan). With a poor exegetical understanding of these passages, self-righteous Southerners surmised that Ham was Black, his descendants were Africans, and that their existence must be divinely ordained as one of servitude to whites, who were purportedly descendants of Shem and Japheth. This narrative strongly appealed to Southern Christians “because Ham acted like [they] expected a black man to act … ungovernable.” Therefore, taming an allegedly uncivilized, rebellious people became a deep cultural mission for colonial Americans across the nation.
A vast majority of the African slaves brought to the U.S. originated from a diverse set of spiritual and religious backgrounds (including Christianity and Islam). But by imagining Africans as godless, barbaric descendants of Canaan, Southern Christians felt compelled to enslave Africans and introduce them to civil life under God. Bishop Stephen Elliott, a Georgian preacher, epitomized this very rhetoric while preaching:
For nearly a hundred years the English and American Churches have been striving to civilize and Christianize Western Africa … but what a small number in comparison with the thousands, nay, I may say millions, who have learned the way to Heaven and who have been made to know their Savior through the means of African slavery…
Southerners rationalized that it was Providence which would bring Africans to the U.S., not greed; slavery was not evil, it was righteous. And from a secular perspective, civilizing a barbaric people was reason enough.
The New Testament was largely ignored by pro-slavery advocates for obvious reasons, though of course, not completely. Along with Ephesians 6, the Book of Philemon was also used by proponents of slavery. In it, St. Paul returns Onesimus—a runaway slave—to his master, Philemon. However, Paul urges Philemon to forgive Onesimus and accept him as a brother in Christ, asserting that his position as “master” is not feasible under Christ’s kingdom. Rather than supporting slavery, Paul levels the two men as equals and only begs Philemon to forgive his slave in acknowledgement of his earthly authority.
To that end, Paul’s letter to Philemon can be understood similarly to Jesus’ response regarding Roman taxation (“Render unto Caesar”), which is not oblivious to the moral flaws of human institutions, but rather craftily recognizes existing worldly hierarchies without specifying moral judgement in that specific context for the sake of a greater mission. Nonetheless, neither Christ nor Paul avoid ethical prescriptions in their theology. To the contrary, both assert an explicit, ethical law that diametrically opposes slavery and abuse, as will soon be discussed.
Lastly, some people justified the merit of slavery by nature of it not being explicitly condemned in the New Testament. To them, Jesus’ lack of criticism was an implicit support of the evil institution. The combination of these various sentiments ultimately resulted in the perpetuation of slave trade among Southern Christians. With a contorted understanding of the nation’s Christian origins, proponents of slavery were able to successfully manipulate the majoritarian, religious populous to idly condone their self-interested abomination.
The Rise of the Black Church
It is undeniable that slavery led to a massive loss of identity among Blacks in America. Ripped apart from their ties to a home, culture or even family, the emergence of the Black Church was what offered African Americans a new path for progress. Precisely because of its horrors, the Black experience served as a shared trauma with which Black Americans could relate to one another, even without having prior affiliations. After their introduction to Christianity, Black Americans discovered a revolutionary foundation upon which they could grow and prosper, one that exuded the spirits of hope and love. This new community—the Black Church—effectively united them as the children of God.
For the purpose of simplicity, this article treats “the Black Church” as a term which amalgamates all Black churches in America, but with a special emphasis on those in the South. Historically, the term is traced back to the seven, major Black religious denominations in the United States. These include the African Methodist Episcopal, National Baptist Inc., National Baptist Un-Inc., the Progressive National Baptist, and the Church of God in Christ. Before the establishment of these Churches, however, there was only one type of Black church: the illegal one.
When slave-owners introduced Christianity to slaves, they intended it to foster obedience and respect for their authority. Slavers sought to desensitize Blacks to their agony by convincing them that they were indeed lesser beings destined for servitude. Understandably, most slaves resisted this twisted version of Christianity:
At the outset, [Christianity] was widely rejected by slaves because this religion held them in bondage. Eventually more and more slaves began to accept religion. They believed that even if it didn't help them, it would free their children. (Louis Kendrick, Pittsburgh Courier, 2000)
By the start of the Civil War in 1861, well over two hundred years after the arrival of the first slaves in the U.S., many Blacks were familiar with the religion of their oppressor. Though not all had adopted it, a substantial percentage of slaves had taken up religious exercises, typically through secret prayer-gatherings or formal services led by “slave preachers.”
Those indulging in the former often risked punishment or death, while those in the latter camp were strictly observed and regulated. For example, slave-owners would hire “slave preachers” to promote obedience and reinforce the master’s wishes. Furthermore, Bibles used for approved slave-worship would be altered to omit passages which could potentially incite rebellion. Either way, the reality of Christian teachings could not be hidden from slaves forever. Some learned to read, and over time, many began to interpret the Bible for themselves. Before long, the “masters’ faith” became a source of strength for slaves, especially with powerful stories like the Israelites’ Exodus and the subsequent drowning of the Pharaoh's army.
Slowly, Christianity grew among slaves. Helen Gray, religion editor at Kansas City Star throughout the late-20th century, pointed out that Christianity “kept alive a sense of their own value [as children of God], in the midst of a system that was based on the racist belief that they were less than human…” As slaves began to “to hold their own religious meetings out of disgust for the vitiated gospel preached by their masters’ preachers,” they began to understand “that God cared for them as children of God.” Though some slaves continued to reject the new faith in lieu of traditional African and/or Muslim beliefs, Christianity provided the strength with which many Blacks survived unspeakable horrors. Even after emancipation, faith reinforced Black Americans’ sense of dignity and self-worth while keeping hope alive.
Transforming the Land of the Free
By the early 20th century, the Black Church was practically involved in almost every aspect of Black life; it was essentially a microcosm of the country for the average African American. It had its hands in politics, economics, culture, etc. and functioned as the institutional catalyst for Black individuals who were otherwise restricted access to these life arenas. For example, it became one of the first forms of land ownership and financial support for Blacks in America, promoting the development of their communities in America. It also served as an avenue for the hopeful imagination of a better future through education. But above all else, the Black Church became the voice through which African Americans could communicate to their non-Black neighbors. By appealing to the Christian founding of the nation, the Church utilized its platform to address White America in terms it understood, particularly through the teachings of Christ.
So exactly how could the Black Church begin to move America forward? What are “the teachings of Christ?” These questions were at the forefront of the Black Church’s theological inquiry during the mid-1900s. From chattel slavery to the Reconstruction and Jim Crow era, Black Americans in the United States had suffered tremendously at the hands of White Americans. At first, the Black Church focused inward, developing its roots and community rather than taking a brazenly direct stance against the titanic, racist institutions of the country. But by the time the Civil Rights movement blossomed in the 1960s, the Black Church led the resistance against inequality in the United States head on. Throughout that time, one quality predominantly characterized the Black Church’s movement: sacrificial neighborly love.
Despite experiencing centuries of pseudo-Christian-based oppression, it was not difficult for the Black Church to identify what Christ-like love looked like. It only had to turn to the Gospel: “Whatever you want men to do to you, you [must] also do to them, for this is the Law and the Prophet.” (Matthew 7:12) Biblically, there was no caveat to this Golden Rule … no “but” or “if” involved; past wrongs did not provide loopholes nor justification for retaliation (Leviticus 19:18). Scripture makes it clear that Christians have two responsibilities above all else: (1) to love God with absolute commitment, and (2) to love their neighbors just as they love themselves (Luke 10:27). The Laws of the New Testament and the Prophecies of the Old are wholly built upon this command to love (Matthew 22:40).
Furthermore, the Gospel also addresses the question of who our “neighbors” are (Luke 12:29-37). Neighbors are not just those close to us, whether literally, culturally, or otherwise. They are not necessarily related to us, by blood or even by faith. Our “neighbors” are simply people, distinguished only by their humanness and inherent worth as the children of God. Therefore, the Bible’s call to “love one another” does not discriminate among any form of demographic or background. This sentiment was extremely powerful considering the history of the Black Church in America. By loving this nation — one which persecuted them in unimaginable ways — African-Americans were able to successfully grab the attention of the country and challenge their brethren, white and black, to re-evaluate their relationship. It was a reflection of Luke 23:34 … of Christly love and forgiveness.
Still, Christly love must not be mistaken for blind love. The New Testament encourages Christians to seek the difference between truth and error and right and wrong; its only demand is that human judgement is guided by the spirit of love. Despite historical abuses of the Old Testament’s passages for personal gain, Jesus’ teachings were unambiguously selfless. The New Testament exudes love, and it reconciles the harsh, time-and-context-specific legal system of the Old Testament with the Law of “turn[ing] … the other cheek” and “liv[ing] peaceably with all.” (Matthew 5:38-48, Romans 12:17-19) It was this command that most prominently shaped Black churches across the country.
Countless Black American pastors emphasized love in the pursuit of justice even before Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s rise. Figures like Baptist pastor Rev. Clayton Powell Sr., A.M.E. bishop Rev. Cassius Ranson, and Zion pastor Rev Florence Randolph were just some of the earlier church leaders that pushed for reconciliation and “hope across racial, ethnic, and class lines within their congregations … Black communit[ies], and the wider culture.” From the pulpit, these religious leaders were able to rejuvenate debilitated spirits in the midst of the Reconstruction era by carefully balancing their encouragement of love and holy disobedience. It is by building upon this very spirit that King successfully led the Black Church to the steps of the nation’s capital, showcasing the revolutionary emergence of nonviolent resistance to racism. Years before his famous “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” and subsequent “I Have a Dream” speech in 1963, King preached this message to his congregation:
Hate for hate only intensifies the existence of hate and evil in the universe… The strong person is the person who can cut off the chain of hate, the chain of evil… and inject within the very structure of the universe that strong and powerful element of love.
This call for love reverberated through the country, and even those who believed in a more hostile approach to combating injustice found themselves drawn to the spirit of God. White Southern Church leaders were also struck by the electricity of King’s later letter from his Birmingham cell, one minister even exclaiming that “if the canon of the Holy Scripture were not closed, [he] would nominate it … as an addition to the Epistles in the best tradition of the Pauline prison letters.”
More than 50 years after his death, King’s influence continues to resonate throughout the United States, pressuring us to live a life of love. The fast reversal of 400 years of slavery highlights the power of a movement rooted in Christly love. This movement, however, is not without challenges. Upticks in nationalism, racism, sectarianism, sexism, ableism, classism, and other -isms signal a reinvigoration of mutual despise among Americans of various backgrounds (White/Black, man/woman, rich/poor, liberal/conservative, etc). For its part, the Black Church has effectively served as the pillar against which Black American communities could lean on, in slavery and in freedom. However, continued healing and reconciliation—especially for the Black community—will depend on a renewal of the passionate commitment to sacrificial love which led this country beyond its reprehensible past.
Kirubell recently graduated from The King’s College with a B.A. in Politics, Philosophy, and Economics with an Economics Concentration. His research interests lie in development economics and African/Black history.